Ethiopia At War
Haile Selassie continued Menelik's modernisation efforts but, like him, was to become best-known as a warrior king. It was Ethiopia's role in the Second World War that defined the nation's identity internationally for the second half of the twentieth century. Italy had never forgotten her humiliating defeat at Adwa. Seeking to expand beyond its Somalian dominions, Fascist Italy had coveted Ethiopian lands for some years, provoking a border dispute which the emperor sought to resolve peacefully. Despite the disagreement, relations with Italy seemed cordial, and in 1930 Haile Selassie accepted the Order of the Annunciation from King Victor Emmanuel III. Unfortunately, the establishment of a vast colonial empire was integral to Fascist foreign policy, and the Italians invaded Ethiopia on 3 October 1935, with no declaration of war. (Thus the precise terms of the Pact of Paris, or Kellogg-Briand Pact, were not actually violated.) Despite heroic efforts which significantly delayed the enemy advance, the Imperial troops were overwhelmed by the Italians, who made early use, even against the civilian population, of poison gas, flame throwers and other weapons outlawed by international treaty. Just prior to the fall of Addis Ababa in early May, the emperor, his staff, and part of what remained of his army, retreated into exile. Stopping briefly to pray at one of Ethiopia's famous rock churches, Haile Selassie vowed to return, but whether he could make good on his promise remained to be seen. Italy-Ethiopian Wars    With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea coast had become increasingly attractive to the European powers as an object for colonization. Italy focused its attention on Ethiopia, seizing Aseb in 1872 and Massawa in 1885. In 1889 Menelik and the Italians signed the Treaty of Wichale (Ucciali). The treaty was one of friendship and cooperation, but the Amharic and Italian versions of it differed, and the Italians claimed that it made all of Ethiopia their protectorate. As a result, war broke out between Italy and Ethiopia in 1895, and Italian forces were decisively defeated at Adwa (Aduwa) the following year. Italy was forced to recognize the independence of Ethiopia, and Menelik’s present-day boundaries. The successor of Menelik, Emperor Lij Iyasu (reigned 1913-1916), was deposed in favor of his aunt, crowned Empress Zauditu. Tafari Makonnen, her cousin, was selected as heir apparent; he succeeded to the throne as Haile Selassie I. In 1931 he granted Ethiopia its first constitution.
With the rise of the dictator Benito Mussolini, Italian designs toward Ethiopia were revived, and in October 1935 Italy invaded the country (see Italy: The Ethiopian Campaign). An attempt by the League of Nations to halt the conquest failed. Addis Ababa fell to the invaders, and in May 1936 Mussolini proclaimed Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III emperor of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country and take refuge in England, but he was restored to the throne by British and Ethiopian forces in 1941.
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